A Feast of Senses
Rhetorical Devices in the Prose of Salman Rushdie
With Special Reference to Metaphors and Adverbs
Toril Swan
University of Tromsø
The
present paper will examine Salman Rushdie's prose from a rhetorical
point of view, looking especially at metaphors and adverbs.
The two categories may indeed overlap, as will be shown. It
should also be noted that the present analysis is not a literary
analysis, but focuses entirely on Rushdie's language; in other
words it is a study of form, not content. It is of course hoped
that it nevertheless might provide insights also for the literary
student of Rushdie. Section 1 discusses rhetorical devices in
Salman Rushdie's work, generally and with particular emphasis
on metaphor usage. Section 2 outlines basic adverb types and
their functions, while section 3 provides a more thorough analysis
of the adverbs used by Rushdie. Finally, section 4 contains
a summary and conclusion.
1.
Metaphors and other rhetorical devices in Salman Rushdie's prose
1.1
General introduction
Salman
Rushdie's books (and I will here be concerned mainly with Shame,
Midnight's children, and
the Moor's last sigh;
in examples, these works will hereafter be referred to as S,
MC, and MLS respectively) function as extended
and complex fairytales in which convoluted systems of interlocking
stories are presented in an oral narrative tradition. This is
an interactive style in which the narrator, often the main protagonist,
interacts with the audience asking questions, inserting his
commentary, etc. The rhetoric is that of fairytales, as are
the vocabulary and plots. Rushdie's novels have been compared
to the colourful vulgarity of the Bombay cinema, but his vulgarities
and vulgarities they often are are transformed into a bejewelled
fabric.
Especially
notable in Rushdie is his focus on the physical senses in
particular vision, for instance colour. Thus he brings the world,
several worlds, ante oculos;
his entire literary oeuvre might indeed be classified as a hypotyposis or evidentia/demonstratio.
Other senses, however, are important as well; in particular
this is true of smell, but also taste. The senses are often
treated synaesthetically, as when scents are classified by colours,
(MC p. 318). Rushdie is an artist using language not just to
observe nature, but to recreate it, cf. Vickers (1988:333),
and indeed his frequent linguistic innovations are perfectly
in line with this, cf. (1) where the noun angel becomes an expressive, highly physical verb.
(1)
The angeling of Babar
must have been just about complete by the time of his death...(S
132)
It
is, then, the senses we will concentrate on here the metaphors
and adverbs which convey a feast of senses.
As
is well known (cf. for instance Merivale 1995:83), Rushdie's
narratives may be characterized as magical realism. It should
also be mentioned that Rushdie makes use of the narrative traditions
of India as well as the traditions of classical and western
rhetoric. His novels, at any rate, abound with strong rhetorical
and metaphorical strategies, whether we assign them to Indian
or western traditions. Some random examples of frequently occurring
classical rhetorical figures will provide a brief introduction,
cf. (2).
(2) (Anaphora/repetitio) There were rubies and
diamonds. There was the ice of the future, waiting between the
water's skin. There was an oath: not to bow down before god
or man.. .. The oath created a hole... (MC. 107)
(Isocolon/compar)
Precise duty of units? To obey unquestioningly; to seek unflaggingly;
to arrest remorselessly. (MC 348)
(Aposiopesis/praecisio)
Well, then: at night. No, it's important to be more... On the
strike of midnight as a matter of fact. (MC 9)
(Asyndeton/dissolutio)
Soothsayers had prophesied me, newspapers celebrated my arrival,
politicos ratified my authenticity. (MC 9)
In
short, Rushdie makes frequent and effective use of affective
rhetoric and the expressive functionality of figures (figurae
sententiarum)(Vickers 1988:322).
1.2
Metaphors
Rushdie's
metaphor usage is innovative and coherent. There are several
examples of superordinate, controlling metaphors, sustained
throughout the novels, such as the children born at midnight
in the novel Midnight's children (who are said to be handcuffed to the history of India),
and cf. Dissanayake (1985:239), the pickle jars also in Midnight's
children, and the spices
of the Moor's last sigh.
Other metaphors are part of sustained image sets, in which metaphors
are mixed with the concrete and literal in semantic sets, cf.
for instance (3) where the relevant words are marked in italics.
(3)
... my mother Aurora was snow-white
at twenty, and what fairytale glamour, what icy gravitas was added to her beauty by the soft glaciers cascading from her head... (MLS 12)
... the huge stilt-root of the mangrove trees could be
seen snaking about thirstily in the dusk,
sucking in the rain... (MC 361)
The embarrassment of her daughter's deed, the ice of this latest shame lent a frozen rigidity to her bearing. (S 139)
While
every good metaphor, according to Quintilian, has direct appeal
to the senses Rushdie's are particularly sensuous often
down-to-earth, even brutally and nastily so. Terms denoting
food, flavour, tasting and eating, etc. occur frequently, and
in Midnight's children the narrator says of himself that he has been "a swallower of life
(MC 9)". The examples in (4) illustrate this:
(4)
... and those blazing
days of their hot-pepper love (MLS 113)
... never one for a quiet life, she sucked in
the city's hot stenches, lapped up
its burning
sauces, she gobbled its dishes up whole. (MLS 128)
Fragrances
as well as stenches are recurrent metaphors in Rushdie. Thus
noses and smells play a particularly important role in Midnight's
children; the narrator/hero is possessed of a special nose,
which even smells emotions, cf. (5).
(5)
... and smelled the scent of danger blaring like trumpets
in my nose. (MC 428)
... The perfume of her sad hopefulness permeates her
most innocently solicitously remarks....(MC 385)
Finally,
(6)-(7) show other examples of metaphorical language; note particularly
the seductive alliteration in (6)
(6)
I became aware of being surrounded by soft, amorous susurrations,
like the couplings of velvet mice... (MC 454)
(7)
Despair, lapping at the edges of the boat. (MC 359)
2.
An outline of adverbial functions
We
turn now to my main concern the adverbs. First, a brief overview
of normal types cf. (8)-(10), which contain only canonical,
normal, everyday adverbs, and (11), which shows some of the
less obviously scoped cases.
(8)
MANNER
a. Kristin talked loudly.
b. Mateuzs played beautifully.
(9) SUBJECT-MODIFIER ADVERB
a. He thankfully accepted her help.
b. Kevin apologized
willingly.
c. Pinkly he confirmed this.
d. WPC Alexander bustled
plumply around her.
(10) SENTENCE ADVERB
a.
Fortunately, Peter now accepts those stative adverbs.
b. She will probably win the Nobel Peace Prize this year.
(11) A HANDFUL OF MORE OR LESS DIFFICULT CASES
a.
They
were famously painted by Bacon.
b. She deservedly won that Oscar.
c. She painfully
made her way upstairs.
The
examples in (8) are generally typical of pure manner adverbs.
Their function is to modify a verb, or specify a type of the
action in question, and they usually follow the verb directly.
The examples in (9) exemplify subject-modifying adverbs. Normally
these refer to states of mind (agents' states of mind), i.e.
those subjects are normally considered to be involved in some
activity while they are in this state of mind (9a-b); the examples
in (9c-d), however, are of a new type, physical subject modifiers,
and ascribe physical properties to subjects.
(10)
shows sentence adverbs. They have the entire sentence in their
scope, and are subjective in the sense of being speaker comments,
evaluating the truth of the proposition, as in (10b), or the
fact itself, as in (10a). Finally, (11) contains a motley group
of more-or-less odd examples with various indeterminate
functions.
It
has been shown in various works (notably Swan 1988, 1997) that
in English, there is an ongoing linguistic change, called adverbialization,
which means (in rather unlinguistic terms) that new types of
adverbs are evolving (starting in Old English, but especially
from the beginning of the early Modern English period) from
manner to sentence adverb, cf. (12)-(13). Manner adverbs, i.e.
-ly suffixed verb modifiers, are prototypical adverbs (cf.
Swan 1997).
(12) The
dog hopefully stared at the bone>Hopefully the weather will be nice.
(13) She
thankfully accepted her help>Thankfully, the weather was nice.
Lately,
the process of adverbialization includes an expansion in the
subject-modifying use of an adverb i.e. an ly
form, where formerly a predicative adjective would have been
used to modify a noun (cf. especially Killie 1993, forthcoming,
and Swan 1990, 1997). In all these cases, adverbialization involves
an increase of subjectivity (i.e. subjectivity defined as increased
grounding in speaker's attitude and perspective on what is said,
cf. Traugott 1996b) from concrete (She walks quickly)
to assumptive (She sadly wandered home)
and finally wholly subjective, as sentence adverbs situating
the event in mental space (Fortunately Sheila left).
I
would suggest that mental subject-modifier adverbs (such as
thoughtfully, happily,
patiently, etc.) are assumptive; they represent the speaker's
subjective interpretation
of the subject's state of mind, since the subject's state of
mind is not accessible to the speaker. This is called "other-perspective"
by Iwasaki (1993:18ff.); the adverb does not merely describe
an event, but orients the hearer by means of interpreting the
subject (cf. also Verhagen 1995:115-116). Thus these adverbs
denote the speaker's assumptions about the subject based on
evidence in real life, and in literary discourse they provide
insights into the characters.
3.
Adverbs in Rushdie's work
Rushdie
makes use of -ly adverbs
in many contexts, and brilliantly so. As we shall see, they
occur repeatedly in unexpected contexts, and thus bring an innovative
quality into the text which is wholly consonant with rhetoric
and narrative functions (cf. also Faris 1995:170). Here I will
mostly be concerned with those adverbs which modify (in some
sense) subjects. Rushdie, of course, makes use of traditional
adverbs, but notably he uses a great many of a more recent type,
namely physical subject modifiers such as pinkly,
saltily, etc. such adverbs
indeed function as rhetorical devices, as will be shown below,
to a much higher extent than the less novel types even though
even traditional adverbs in English function as rhetorical devices.
3.1
Rushdie's adverbs as rhetorical devices
So
what precisely is the rhetorical function of his adverbs and
how do they fit into the other rhetorical devices and figures
used by Rushdie? I take as a starting point that Rushdie makes
use of the process of adverbialization, indeed, that this process
is used by Rushdie as a poetic, rhetorical device; incidentally
Rushdie thus is a part of and possibly may further a historical
process of linguistic change. Attempting to answer the question
posed, we now turn to some examples (the adverbs under discussion
are italicized).
Firstly, some of the adverbs are rhetorical in the classical
sense simply because they are clearly metaphorical, or part
of a metaphor, though in some cases they are ambiguous as to
whether they are metaphors or used concretely, cf. (14).
(14) a.
She lay dustily
on her bed; we waited and feared. (MC 273)
b.
The
last bachelors and spinsters sun themselves toothlessly in the childless Mattancheori lanes. (MLS
119)
c.
...
her secrets are leaking saltily
out of her eyes... (MC
105)
d ... he stressed,
flashing goldly at Ahmed
Sinai... (MC 312)
e. Formlessly, before I began to shape them, the fragrances poured
into me... (MC 316)
Toothlessly in (14b) might be a metaphor for the weakness of old
age, or simply mean literally without teeth; equally the adverb
may represent a syllepsis or pun, and convey both meanings.
(In 15a, on the other hand, toothlessly is wholly literal.)
Secondly,
others are clearly literal (in most senses of the word), but
nevertheless function as rhetorical ornaments, figures designed
to vividly stop our eyes, providing a focus, pleasing to the
senses, as any rhetorical figure does, cf. (15).
(15) a.
Resham said toothlessly
and fled; (MC 387)
b. when she had become
so sheetly-white (MC
59)
c. At Methwold's Estate
goldfish hang stilly
in ponds while... (MC 115)
d. 'I am afraid,' Uncle
Puffs said gummily...
(MC 340)
e. - a new swelling
had pushed lumpily out
of the lower left ventricle. (MC 296)
f ...
lower lip protruding fleshily...(MC
82)
g ... greenly-blackly, she sails into my cell...(MC 437)
h. He had long hair,
poetically long, hanging lankly
over his ears; (MC 216)
The
examples in (15), then, refer to concrete, literal situations
but the impact of the adverbs is quite striking. Normally,
it is objects or entities which are lumpy or fleshy, green,
black, etc. we don't do things in a gummy (or toothless) way.
Provided with an adverbial form, however, verb and subject are
again linked together unusually and with rhetorical effect.
While
normal adverbs are dynamic, verb modifiers, the adverbs in (14)-(15)
are formed from stative adjectives, dusty
in (14a), toothless
in (14b), fleshy in (15f), etc. (cf. a dusty woman, toothless
old people, fleshy lips),
but combine here with the verb as well as the subject. The reason
why these rhetorical ornaments are so vivid is precisely because
they draw together in one image the proposition of the verb
(dynamic action) and that of the subject modifier (stative description).
Normally, and prototypically, adverb and verb form one dynamic
unit. Here, the adverb provides a focus on both subject and
verb. Nevertheless, due to the -ly
suffix and the meaning of the adjective, the dynamics of the
verb is linked to the meaning of the subject. Thus our eyes
are drawn to a new and very different combination a network
of interconnected ideas enriching the syntax with new connotations
via rhetoric.
The examples provided in (16) are less determinate as
to focus than those described above, but probably includes the
subject's eyes in (16a-b), and the object (bodies) in (16b). The entire image created is an inclusive
one, like that in (14)-(15):
(16) a.
Farooq and Shaheed stared glassily
at the field... (MC 371)
b.
that
it was possible to see through their bodies, not clearly yet,
but cloudily, like staring through mango juice. (MC 367)
c. he stood still,
gazing milkily down and
around... (MC 376)
Finally,
the adverbs are also to be considered as one-word abbreviations
of entire propositions, and thus, as is particularly possible
in English, are an elegant, abbreviatory rhetorical device.
In the sentences in (17), more ordinary subject-modifier adverbs
exemplify this. They are used as "setting of the scene"
via the initial position, i.e. the topics are the particular
states of mind of the subjects or their external appearance.
Finally, (18) shows an example with a non-initial state of mind
adverb.
(17) a.
Inwardly, unsmilingly,
Shaheed observed various CUTIA units... (MC 352)
b. Blindly, he impugned my state of mind... (MC 65)
c.
Patiently, dry-eyed, I imbibed Nehru-letter and Winkie's prophecy;
(MC 130)
(18) a.
...sat sullenly
in corners... (MC 274)
b. ...with my whole
family trooping amazedly
behind us... (MC 280)
c. Uncle Hanif broke
a pencil, absentmindedly,
into two halves. (MC 249)
In
principle, the adverbs in (17) could have been replaced with
an initial adjectival clause: Patient, I imbibed...
(cf. 17c), but again the adverb form serves as a rhetorical
device to link subject and verb, and thus comparing and contrasting
in a way the adjective would not. The meaning of the adverb
encompasses an entire clause: I was patient.
In (18a-b), the postverbal position is less prominent than initial,
and links the adverb more closely to the activity, the dynamic
verb. Note especially (18c), where the state of mind adverb
absentmindedly
neatly mirrors the state of affairs (the absentmindedness of
Uncle Hanif) by breaking up the syntax of the sentence.
While
the above-mentioned adverbs differ with respect to how they
focus on subject and verb respectively, all of them clearly
have a linking function and simultaneously focus on or specify
aspects of the subject or the verb, as shown in (19).
(19)
In
cognitive linguistics, perspective and focus are important,
as indeed they are in rhetoric: what the writer focuses on implies
a perspective. To select adverbs of the type discussed here
is to make use of them as conceptual tools to form particular
images according to a particular perspective. It should also
be mentioned that textual reference is selective. According
to Hawkins (1997:26):
In most cases, and especially in iconographic reference,
it is clear that the information selected for a presentation
in a particular textual reference is chosen for a strategic
rhetorical purpose ... the particular conceptual tools accessed
depend on the nature of the information needed to construct
the image that the speaker/writer intends to convey.
In
short, then, Rushdie's adverbs are used rhetorically, and each
adverb contributes to the rhetorical imagery of the texts.
4.
Conclusion
The
present paper has attempted to show that Rushdie's language
is highly rhetorical. Partly his rhetoric is metaphorical, partly
it is structural and can be traced in the syntax of the texts.
The main purpose of the paper is, however, to show that Rushdie's
use of novel as well as more traditional adverbs is particularly
noteworthy from a rhetorical point of view, and is effective
precisely because it makes use of an on-going linguistic change.
The
adverbs in question function rhetorically in three, partly overlapping
ways. They are frequently metaphorical, and even if strictly
literal (i.e. concrete), convey images and sense forms. Secondly,
the linking and focusing function of the adverbs is an effective
rhetorical device, as prototypical adverb use focus on or
specification of verbal actions and activities is transformed
into a focus on or specification of the subject, while the adverb
form (the -ly suffix)
ensures a simultaneous link to the verbal action. Thus the sentence
presents a tightly-knit event, a coherent image. Finally, Rushdie's
adverbs function rhetorically as abbreviated propositions. This
use of adverbs is in particular a property of English, and Rushdie
exploits it elegantly.
Rhetoric
is, in a sense, the sculpting of language for purposes of effective
persuasion or information mediation. In his narratives, Rushdie
indeed sculpts the English language into sensual, visual entities
or patterns, observing as well as recreating nature. His use
of adverbialization is, in this sense, superbly rhetorical:
a feast of senses.
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